perf(compute): Redesign VM interference algorithm

This change redesigns the virtual machine interference algorithm to have
a fixed memory usage per `VmInterferenceModel` instance. Previously, for
every interference domain, a copy of the model would be created, leading
to OutOfMemory errors when running multiple experiments at the same
time.

12 files changed, 552 insertions, 277 deletions

diff --git a/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReader.kt b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReader.kt
deleted file mode 100644
index 67f9626c..00000000
--- a/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReader.kt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,68 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * Copyright (c) 2021 AtLarge Research
- *
- * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
- * of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
- * in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
- * to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
- * copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
- * furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
- *
- * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
- * copies or substantial portions of the Software.
- *
- * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
- * IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
- * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
- * AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
- * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
- * OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
- * SOFTWARE.
- */
-
-package org.opendc.compute.workload.util
-
-import com.fasterxml.jackson.annotation.JsonProperty
-import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.ObjectMapper
-import com.fasterxml.jackson.module.kotlin.jacksonObjectMapper
-import com.fasterxml.jackson.module.kotlin.readValue
-import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceGroup
-import java.io.File
-import java.io.InputStream
-
-/**
- * A parser for the JSON performance interference setup files used for the TPDS article on Capelin.
- */
-public class PerformanceInterferenceReader {
-    /**
-     * The [ObjectMapper] to use.
-     */
-    private val mapper = jacksonObjectMapper()
-
-    init {
-        mapper.addMixIn(VmInterferenceGroup::class.java, GroupMixin::class.java)
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Read the performance interface model from [file].
-     */
-    public fun read(file: File): List<VmInterferenceGroup> {
-        return mapper.readValue(file)
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Read the performance interface model from the input.
-     */
-    public fun read(input: InputStream): List<VmInterferenceGroup> {
-        return mapper.readValue(input)
-    }
-
-    private data class GroupMixin(
-        @JsonProperty("minServerLoad")
-        val targetLoad: Double,
-        @JsonProperty("performanceScore")
-        val score: Double,
-        @JsonProperty("vms")
-        val members: Set<String>,
-    )
-}
diff --git a/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/VmInterferenceModelReader.kt b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/VmInterferenceModelReader.kt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e0fa8904
--- /dev/null
+++ b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/VmInterferenceModelReader.kt
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright (c) 2021 AtLarge Research
+ *
+ * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+ * of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+ * in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+ * to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+ * copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+ * furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+ *
+ * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+ * copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+ *
+ * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+ * IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+ * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+ * AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+ * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+ * OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+ * SOFTWARE.
+ */
+
+package org.opendc.compute.workload.util
+
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.annotation.JsonProperty
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.core.JsonParseException
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.core.JsonParser
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.core.JsonToken
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.ObjectMapper
+import com.fasterxml.jackson.module.kotlin.jacksonObjectMapper
+import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceModel
+import java.io.File
+import java.io.InputStream
+
+/**
+ * A parser for the JSON performance interference setup files used for the TPDS article on Capelin.
+ */
+public class VmInterferenceModelReader {
+    /**
+     * The [ObjectMapper] to use.
+     */
+    private val mapper = jacksonObjectMapper()
+
+    /**
+     * Read the performance interface model from [file].
+     */
+    public fun read(file: File): VmInterferenceModel {
+        val builder = VmInterferenceModel.builder()
+        val parser = mapper.createParser(file)
+        parseGroups(parser, builder)
+        return builder.build()
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Read the performance interface model from the input.
+     */
+    public fun read(input: InputStream): VmInterferenceModel {
+        val builder = VmInterferenceModel.builder()
+        val parser = mapper.createParser(input)
+        parseGroups(parser, builder)
+        return builder.build()
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parse all groups in an interference JSON file.
+     */
+    private fun parseGroups(parser: JsonParser, builder: VmInterferenceModel.Builder) {
+        parser.nextToken()
+
+        if (!parser.isExpectedStartArrayToken) {
+            throw JsonParseException(parser, "Expected array at start, but got ${parser.currentToken()}")
+        }
+
+        while (parser.nextToken() != JsonToken.END_ARRAY) {
+            parseGroup(parser, builder)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parse a group an interference JSON file.
+     */
+    private fun parseGroup(parser: JsonParser, builder: VmInterferenceModel.Builder) {
+        var targetLoad = Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY
+        var score = 1.0
+        val members = mutableSetOf<String>()
+
+        if (!parser.isExpectedStartObjectToken) {
+            throw JsonParseException(parser, "Expected object, but got ${parser.currentToken()}")
+        }
+
+        while (parser.nextValue() != JsonToken.END_OBJECT) {
+            when (parser.currentName) {
+                "vms" -> parseGroupMembers(parser, members)
+                "minServerLoad" -> targetLoad = parser.doubleValue
+                "performanceScore" -> score = parser.doubleValue
+            }
+        }
+
+        builder.addGroup(members, targetLoad, score)
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parse the members of a group.
+     */
+    private fun parseGroupMembers(parser: JsonParser, members: MutableSet<String>) {
+        if (!parser.isExpectedStartArrayToken) {
+            throw JsonParseException(parser, "Expected array for group members, but got ${parser.currentToken()}")
+        }
+
+        while (parser.nextValue() != JsonToken.END_ARRAY) {
+            if (parser.currentToken() != JsonToken.VALUE_STRING) {
+                throw JsonParseException(parser, "Expected string value for group member")
+            }
+
+            val member = parser.text.removePrefix("vm__workload__").removeSuffix(".txt")
+            members.add(member)
+        }
+    }
+
+    private data class Group(
+        @JsonProperty("minServerLoad")
+        val targetLoad: Double,
+        @JsonProperty("performanceScore")
+        val score: Double,
+        @JsonProperty("vms")
+        val members: Set<String>,
+    )
+}
diff --git a/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReaderTest.kt b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReaderTest.kt
deleted file mode 100644
index c79f0584..00000000
--- a/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/PerformanceInterferenceReaderTest.kt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * Copyright (c) 2021 AtLarge Research
- *
- * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
- * of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
- * in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
- * to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
- * copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
- * furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
- *
- * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
- * copies or substantial portions of the Software.
- *
- * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
- * IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
- * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
- * AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
- * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
- * OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
- * SOFTWARE.
- */
-
-package org.opendc.compute.workload.util
-
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.assertAll
-
-/**
- * Test suite for the [PerformanceInterferenceReader] class.
- */
-class PerformanceInterferenceReaderTest {
-    @Test
-    fun testSmoke() {
-        val input = checkNotNull(PerformanceInterferenceReader::class.java.getResourceAsStream("/perf-interference.json"))
-        val result = PerformanceInterferenceReader().read(input)
-
-        assertAll(
-            { assertEquals(2, result.size) },
-            { assertEquals(setOf("vm_a", "vm_c", "vm_x", "vm_y"), result[0].members) },
-            { assertEquals(0.0, result[0].targetLoad, 0.001) },
-            { assertEquals(0.8830158730158756, result[0].score, 0.001) }
-        )
-    }
-}
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceGroup.kt b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/VmInterferenceModelReaderTest.kt
index 708ddede..1c3e7149 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceGroup.kt
+++ b/opendc-compute/opendc-compute-workload/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/compute/workload/util/VmInterferenceModelReaderTest.kt
@@ -20,25 +20,18 @@
  * SOFTWARE.
  */
 
-package org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference
+package org.opendc.compute.workload.util
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.assertDoesNotThrow
 
 /**
- * A group of virtual machines that together can interfere when operating on the same resources, causing performance
- * variability.
+ * Test suite for the [VmInterferenceModelReader] class.
  */
-public data class VmInterferenceGroup(
-    /**
-     * The minimum load of the host before the interference occurs.
-     */
-    public val targetLoad: Double,
-
-    /**
-     * A score in [0, 1] representing the performance variability as a result of resource interference.
-     */
-    public val score: Double,
-
-    /**
-     * The members of this interference group.
-     */
-    public val members: Set<String>
-)
+class VmInterferenceModelReaderTest {
+    @Test
+    fun testSmoke() {
+        val input = checkNotNull(VmInterferenceModelReader::class.java.getResourceAsStream("/perf-interference.json"))
+        assertDoesNotThrow { VmInterferenceModelReader().read(input) }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/Portfolio.kt b/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/Portfolio.kt
index 4e855f82..53c9de11 100644
--- a/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/Portfolio.kt
+++ b/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/Portfolio.kt
@@ -30,14 +30,13 @@ import org.opendc.compute.workload.createComputeScheduler
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.export.parquet.ParquetComputeMetricExporter
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.grid5000
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.apply
-import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.PerformanceInterferenceReader
+import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.VmInterferenceModelReader
 import org.opendc.experiments.capelin.model.OperationalPhenomena
 import org.opendc.experiments.capelin.model.Topology
 import org.opendc.experiments.capelin.model.Workload
 import org.opendc.experiments.capelin.topology.clusterTopology
 import org.opendc.harness.dsl.Experiment
 import org.opendc.harness.dsl.anyOf
-import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.core.runBlockingSimulation
 import org.opendc.telemetry.compute.collectServiceMetrics
 import org.opendc.telemetry.sdk.metrics.export.CoroutineMetricReader
@@ -99,9 +98,8 @@ abstract class Portfolio(name: String) : Experiment(name) {
         val seeder = Random(repeat.toLong())
 
         val performanceInterferenceModel = if (operationalPhenomena.hasInterference)
-            PerformanceInterferenceReader()
+            VmInterferenceModelReader()
                 .read(File(config.getString("interference-model")))
-                .let { VmInterferenceModel(it, Random(seeder.nextLong())) }
         else
             null
 
@@ -116,7 +114,7 @@ abstract class Portfolio(name: String) : Experiment(name) {
             clock,
             computeScheduler,
             failureModel,
-            performanceInterferenceModel
+            performanceInterferenceModel?.withSeed(repeat.toLong())
         )
 
         val exporter = ParquetComputeMetricExporter(
diff --git a/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/CapelinIntegrationTest.kt b/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/CapelinIntegrationTest.kt
index 94e92c1b..56ba9cfe 100644
--- a/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/CapelinIntegrationTest.kt
+++ b/opendc-experiments/opendc-experiments-capelin/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/experiments/capelin/CapelinIntegrationTest.kt
@@ -34,9 +34,8 @@ import org.opendc.compute.service.scheduler.weights.CoreRamWeigher
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.*
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.Topology
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.apply
-import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.PerformanceInterferenceReader
+import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.VmInterferenceModelReader
 import org.opendc.experiments.capelin.topology.clusterTopology
-import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.core.runBlockingSimulation
 import org.opendc.telemetry.compute.ComputeMetricExporter
 import org.opendc.telemetry.compute.collectServiceMetrics
@@ -177,9 +176,9 @@ class CapelinIntegrationTest {
         val workload = createTestWorkload(1.0, seed)
         val perfInterferenceInput = checkNotNull(CapelinIntegrationTest::class.java.getResourceAsStream("/bitbrains-perf-interference.json"))
         val performanceInterferenceModel =
-            PerformanceInterferenceReader()
+            VmInterferenceModelReader()
                 .read(perfInterferenceInput)
-                .let { VmInterferenceModel(it, Random(seed.toLong())) }
+                .withSeed(seed.toLong())
 
         val simulator = ComputeWorkloadRunner(
             coroutineContext,
@@ -213,7 +212,7 @@ class CapelinIntegrationTest {
             { assertEquals(6013515, this@CapelinIntegrationTest.exporter.idleTime) { "Idle time incorrect" } },
             { assertEquals(14724500, this@CapelinIntegrationTest.exporter.activeTime) { "Active time incorrect" } },
             { assertEquals(12530742, this@CapelinIntegrationTest.exporter.stealTime) { "Steal time incorrect" } },
-            { assertEquals(481251, this@CapelinIntegrationTest.exporter.lostTime) { "Lost time incorrect" } }
+            { assertEquals(465088, this@CapelinIntegrationTest.exporter.lostTime) { "Lost time incorrect" } }
         )
     }
 
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/SimAbstractMachine.kt b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/SimAbstractMachine.kt
index 60a10f20..5909d980 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/SimAbstractMachine.kt
+++ b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/SimAbstractMachine.kt
@@ -77,33 +77,41 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractMachine(
     private var isTerminated = false
 
     /**
-     * The continuation to resume when the virtual machine workload has finished.
+     * The current active [Context].
      */
-    private var cont: Continuation<Unit>? = null
+    private var _ctx: Context? = null
+
+    /**
+     * This method is invoked when the machine is started.
+     */
+    protected open fun onStart(ctx: SimMachineContext) {}
+
+    /**
+     * This method is invoked when the machine is stopped.
+     */
+    protected open fun onStop(ctx: SimMachineContext) {
+        _ctx = null
+    }
 
     /**
      * Converge the specified [SimWorkload] on this machine and suspend execution util the workload has finished.
      */
     override suspend fun run(workload: SimWorkload, meta: Map<String, Any>) {
         check(!isTerminated) { "Machine is terminated" }
-        check(cont == null) { "A machine cannot run concurrently" }
-
-        val ctx = Context(meta)
+        check(_ctx == null) { "A machine cannot run concurrently" }
 
         return suspendCancellableCoroutine { cont ->
-            this.cont = cont
+            val ctx = Context(meta, cont)
+            _ctx = ctx
 
             // Cancel all cpus on cancellation
-            cont.invokeOnCancellation {
-                this.cont = null
-                engine.batch {
-                    for (cpu in cpus) {
-                        cpu.cancel()
-                    }
-                }
-            }
+            cont.invokeOnCancellation { ctx.close() }
 
-            engine.batch { workload.onStart(ctx) }
+            engine.batch {
+                onStart(ctx)
+
+                workload.onStart(ctx)
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -113,7 +121,7 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractMachine(
         }
 
         isTerminated = true
-        cancel()
+        _ctx?.close()
     }
 
     override fun onConverge(now: Long, delta: Long) {
@@ -121,26 +129,14 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractMachine(
     }
 
     /**
-     * Cancel the workload that is currently running on the machine.
-     */
-    private fun cancel() {
-        engine.batch {
-            for (cpu in cpus) {
-                cpu.cancel()
-            }
-        }
-
-        val cont = cont
-        if (cont != null) {
-            this.cont = null
-            cont.resume(Unit)
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
      * The execution context in which the workload runs.
      */
-    private inner class Context(override val meta: Map<String, Any>) : SimMachineContext {
+    private inner class Context(override val meta: Map<String, Any>, private val cont: Continuation<Unit>) : SimMachineContext {
+        /**
+         * A flag to indicate that the context has been closed.
+         */
+        private var isClosed = false
+
         override val engine: FlowEngine
             get() = this@SimAbstractMachine.engine
 
@@ -152,7 +148,21 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractMachine(
 
         override val storage: List<SimStorageInterface> = this@SimAbstractMachine.storage
 
-        override fun close() = cancel()
+        override fun close() {
+            if (isClosed) {
+                return
+            }
+
+            isClosed = true
+            engine.batch {
+                for (cpu in cpus) {
+                    cpu.cancel()
+                }
+            }
+
+            onStop(this)
+            cont.resume(Unit)
+        }
     }
 
     /**
@@ -166,7 +176,7 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractMachine(
      * The [SimNetworkAdapter] implementation for a machine.
      */
     private class NetworkAdapterImpl(
-        private val engine: FlowEngine,
+        engine: FlowEngine,
         model: NetworkAdapter,
         index: Int
     ) : SimNetworkAdapter(), SimNetworkInterface {
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimAbstractHypervisor.kt b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimAbstractHypervisor.kt
index f6d8f628..90bf5e25 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimAbstractHypervisor.kt
+++ b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimAbstractHypervisor.kt
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceDomain
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.MachineModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.ProcessingUnit
 import org.opendc.simulator.flow.*
+import org.opendc.simulator.flow.interference.InterferenceKey
 import org.opendc.simulator.flow.mux.FlowMultiplexer
 import kotlin.math.roundToLong
 
@@ -141,11 +142,14 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractHypervisor(
      *
      * @param model The machine model of the virtual machine.
      */
-    private inner class VirtualMachine(model: MachineModel, interferenceId: String? = null) : SimAbstractMachine(engine, parent = null, model), SimVirtualMachine {
+    private inner class VirtualMachine(
+        model: MachineModel,
+        private val interferenceId: String? = null
+    ) : SimAbstractMachine(engine, parent = null, model), SimVirtualMachine {
         /**
          * The interference key of this virtual machine.
          */
-        private val interferenceKey = interferenceId?.let { interferenceDomain?.join(interferenceId) }
+        private var interferenceKey: InterferenceKey? = interferenceId?.let { interferenceDomain?.createKey(it) }
 
         /**
          * The vCPUs of the machine.
@@ -187,6 +191,24 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractHypervisor(
         override val cpuUsage: Double
             get() = cpus.sumOf(FlowConsumer::rate)
 
+        override fun onStart(ctx: SimMachineContext) {
+            val interferenceKey = interferenceKey
+            if (interferenceKey != null) {
+                interferenceDomain?.join(interferenceKey)
+            }
+
+            super.onStart(ctx)
+        }
+
+        override fun onStop(ctx: SimMachineContext) {
+            super.onStop(ctx)
+
+            val interferenceKey = interferenceKey
+            if (interferenceKey != null) {
+                interferenceDomain?.leave(interferenceKey)
+            }
+        }
+
         override fun close() {
             super.close()
 
@@ -195,8 +217,10 @@ public abstract class SimAbstractHypervisor(
             }
 
             _vms.remove(this)
+
+            val interferenceKey = interferenceKey
             if (interferenceKey != null) {
-                interferenceDomain?.leave(interferenceKey)
+                interferenceDomain?.removeKey(interferenceKey)
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceDomain.kt b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceDomain.kt
index b737d61a..09b03306 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceDomain.kt
+++ b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceDomain.kt
@@ -30,14 +30,30 @@ import org.opendc.simulator.flow.interference.InterferenceKey
  */
 public interface VmInterferenceDomain : InterferenceDomain {
     /**
-     * Join this interference domain.
+     * Construct an [InterferenceKey] for the specified [id].
      *
      * @param id The identifier of the virtual machine.
+     * @return A key identifying the virtual machine as part of the interference domain. `null` if the virtual machine
+     * does not participate in the domain.
      */
-    public fun join(id: String): InterferenceKey
+    public fun createKey(id: String): InterferenceKey?
 
     /**
-     * Leave this interference domain.
+     * Remove the specified [key] from this domain.
+     */
+    public fun removeKey(key: InterferenceKey)
+
+    /**
+     * Mark the specified [key] as active in this interference domain.
+     *
+     * @param key The key to join the interference domain with.
+     */
+    public fun join(key: InterferenceKey)
+
+    /**
+     * Mark the specified [key] as inactive in this interference domain.
+     *
+     * @param key The key of the virtual machine that wants to leave the domain.
      */
     public fun leave(key: InterferenceKey)
 }
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceModel.kt b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceModel.kt
index b3d72507..977292be 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceModel.kt
+++ b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/interference/VmInterferenceModel.kt
@@ -28,143 +28,366 @@ import java.util.*
 /**
  * An interference model that models the resource interference between virtual machines on a host.
  *
- * @param groups The groups of virtual machines that interfere with each other.
- * @param random The [Random] instance to select the affected virtual machines.
+ * @param targets The target load of each group.
+ * @param scores The performance score of each group.
+ * @param members The members belonging to each group.
+ * @param membership The identifier of each key.
+ * @param size The number of groups.
+ * @param seed The seed to use for randomly selecting the virtual machines that are affected.
  */
-public class VmInterferenceModel(
-    private val groups: List<VmInterferenceGroup>,
-    private val random: Random = Random(0)
+public class VmInterferenceModel private constructor(
+    private val targets: DoubleArray,
+    private val scores: DoubleArray,
+    private val idMapping: Map<String, Int>,
+    private val members: Array<IntArray>,
+    private val membership: Array<IntArray>,
+    private val size: Int,
+    seed: Long,
 ) {
     /**
+     * A [SplittableRandom] used for selecting the virtual machines that are affected.
+     */
+    private val random = SplittableRandom(seed)
+
+    /**
      * Construct a new [VmInterferenceDomain].
      */
-    public fun newDomain(): VmInterferenceDomain = object : VmInterferenceDomain {
+    public fun newDomain(): VmInterferenceDomain = InterferenceDomainImpl(targets, scores, idMapping, members, membership, random)
+
+    /**
+     * Create a copy of this model with a different seed.
+     */
+    public fun withSeed(seed: Long): VmInterferenceModel {
+        return VmInterferenceModel(targets, scores, idMapping, members, membership, size, seed)
+    }
+
+    public companion object {
         /**
-         * The stateful groups of this domain.
+         * Construct a [Builder] instance.
          */
-        private val groups = this@VmInterferenceModel.groups.map { GroupContext(it) }
+        @JvmStatic
+        public fun builder(): Builder = Builder()
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Builder class for a [VmInterferenceModel]
+     */
+    public class Builder internal constructor() {
         /**
-         * The set of keys active in this domain.
+         * The initial capacity of the builder.
          */
-        private val keys = mutableSetOf<InterferenceKeyImpl>()
+        private val INITIAL_CAPACITY = 256
 
-        override fun join(id: String): InterferenceKey {
-            val key = InterferenceKeyImpl(id, groups.filter { id in it }.sortedBy { it.group.targetLoad })
-            keys += key
-            return key
-        }
+        /**
+         * The target load of each group.
+         */
+        private var _targets = DoubleArray(INITIAL_CAPACITY) { Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY }
 
-        override fun leave(key: InterferenceKey) {
-            if (key is InterferenceKeyImpl) {
-                keys -= key
-                key.leave()
+        /**
+         * The performance score of each group.
+         */
+        private var _scores = DoubleArray(INITIAL_CAPACITY) { Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY }
+
+        /**
+         * The members of each group.
+         */
+        private var _members = ArrayList<Set<String>>(INITIAL_CAPACITY)
+
+        /**
+         * The mapping from member to group id.
+         */
+        private val ids = TreeSet<String>()
+
+        /**
+         * The number of groups in the model.
+         */
+        private var size = 0
+
+        /**
+         * Add the specified group to the model.
+         */
+        public fun addGroup(members: Set<String>, targetLoad: Double, score: Double): Builder {
+            val size = size
+
+            if (size == _targets.size) {
+                grow()
             }
+
+            _targets[size] = targetLoad
+            _scores[size] = score
+            _members.add(members)
+            ids.addAll(members)
+
+            this.size++
+
+            return this
         }
 
-        override fun apply(key: InterferenceKey?, load: Double): Double {
-            if (key == null || key !is InterferenceKeyImpl) {
-                return 1.0
-            }
+        /**
+         * Build the [VmInterferenceModel].
+         */
+        public fun build(seed: Long = 0): VmInterferenceModel {
+            val size = size
+            val targets = _targets
+            val scores = _scores
+            val members = _members
 
-            val ctx = key.findGroup(load)
-            val group = ctx?.group
+            val indices = Array(size) { it }
+            indices.sortWith(
+                Comparator { l, r ->
+                    var cmp = targets[l].compareTo(targets[r]) // Order by target load
+                    if (cmp != 0) {
+                        return@Comparator cmp
+                    }
 
-            // Apply performance penalty to (on average) only one of the VMs
-            return if (group != null && random.nextInt(group.members.size) == 0) {
-                group.score
-            } else {
-                1.0
+                    cmp = scores[l].compareTo(scores[r]) // Higher penalty first (this means lower performance score first)
+                    if (cmp != 0)
+                        cmp
+                    else
+                        l.compareTo(r)
+                }
+            )
+
+            val newTargets = DoubleArray(size)
+            val newScores = DoubleArray(size)
+            val newMembers = arrayOfNulls<IntArray>(size)
+
+            var nextId = 0
+            val idMapping = ids.associateWith { nextId++ }
+            val membership = ids.associateWithTo(TreeMap()) { ArrayList<Int>() }
+
+            for ((group, j) in indices.withIndex()) {
+                newTargets[group] = targets[j]
+                newScores[group] = scores[j]
+                val groupMembers = members[j]
+                val newGroupMembers = groupMembers.map { idMapping.getValue(it) }.toIntArray()
+
+                newGroupMembers.sort()
+                newMembers[group] = newGroupMembers
+
+                for (member in groupMembers) {
+                    membership.getValue(member).add(group)
+                }
             }
+
+            @Suppress("UNCHECKED_CAST")
+            return VmInterferenceModel(
+                newTargets,
+                newScores,
+                idMapping,
+                newMembers as Array<IntArray>,
+                membership.map { it.value.toIntArray() }.toTypedArray(),
+                size,
+                seed
+            )
         }
 
-        override fun toString(): String = "VmInterferenceDomain"
+        /**
+         * Helper function to grow the capacity of the internal arrays.
+         */
+        private fun grow() {
+            val oldSize = _targets.size
+            val newSize = oldSize + (oldSize shr 1)
+
+            _targets = _targets.copyOf(newSize)
+            _scores = _scores.copyOf(newSize)
+        }
     }
 
     /**
-     * An interference key.
-     *
-     * @param id The identifier of the member.
-     * @param groups The groups to which the key belongs.
+     * Internal implementation of [VmInterferenceDomain].
      */
-    private inner class InterferenceKeyImpl(val id: String, private val groups: List<GroupContext>) : InterferenceKey {
-        init {
-            for (group in groups) {
-                group.join(this)
-            }
-        }
+    private class InterferenceDomainImpl(
+        private val targets: DoubleArray,
+        private val scores: DoubleArray,
+        private val idMapping: Map<String, Int>,
+        private val members: Array<IntArray>,
+        private val membership: Array<IntArray>,
+        private val random: SplittableRandom
+    ) : VmInterferenceDomain {
+        /**
+         * Keys registered with this domain.
+         */
+        private val keys = HashMap<Int, InterferenceKeyImpl>()
 
         /**
-         * Find the active group that applies for the interference member.
+         * The set of keys active in this domain.
          */
-        fun findGroup(load: Double): GroupContext? {
-            // Find the first active group whose target load is lower than the current load
-            val index = groups.binarySearchBy(load) { it.group.targetLoad }
-            val target = if (index >= 0) index else -(index + 1)
+        private val activeKeys = ArrayList<InterferenceKeyImpl>()
 
-            // Check whether there are active groups ahead of the index
-            for (i in target until groups.size) {
-                val group = groups[i]
-                if (group.group.targetLoad > load) {
-                    break
-                } else if (group.isActive) {
-                    return group
+        override fun createKey(id: String): InterferenceKey? {
+            val intId = idMapping[id] ?: return null
+            return keys.computeIfAbsent(intId) { InterferenceKeyImpl(intId) }
+        }
+
+        override fun removeKey(key: InterferenceKey) {
+            if (key !is InterferenceKeyImpl) {
+                return
+            }
+
+            if (activeKeys.remove(key)) {
+                computeActiveGroups(key.id)
+            }
+
+            keys.remove(key.id)
+        }
+
+        override fun join(key: InterferenceKey) {
+            if (key !is InterferenceKeyImpl) {
+                return
+            }
+
+            if (key.acquire()) {
+                val pos = activeKeys.binarySearch(key)
+                if (pos < 0) {
+                    activeKeys.add(-pos - 1, key)
                 }
+                computeActiveGroups(key.id)
             }
+        }
+
+        override fun leave(key: InterferenceKey) {
+            if (key is InterferenceKeyImpl && key.release()) {
+                activeKeys.remove(key)
+                computeActiveGroups(key.id)
+            }
+        }
+
+        override fun apply(key: InterferenceKey?, load: Double): Double {
+            if (key == null || key !is InterferenceKeyImpl) {
+                return 1.0
+            }
+
+            val groups = key.groups
+            val groupSize = groups.size
+
+            if (groupSize == 0) {
+                return 1.0
+            }
+
+            val targets = targets
+            val scores = scores
+            var low = 0
+            var high = groups.size - 1
 
-            // Check whether there are active groups before the index
-            for (i in (target - 1) downTo 0) {
-                val group = groups[i]
-                if (group.isActive) {
-                    return group
+            var group = -1
+            var score = 1.0
+
+            // Perform binary search over the groups based on target load
+            while (low <= high) {
+                val mid = low + high ushr 1
+                val midGroup = groups[mid]
+                val target = targets[midGroup]
+
+                if (target < load) {
+                    low = mid + 1
+                    group = midGroup
+                    score = scores[midGroup]
+                } else if (target > load) {
+                    high = mid - 1
+                } else {
+                    group = midGroup
+                    score = scores[midGroup]
+                    break
                 }
             }
 
-            return null
+            return if (group >= 0 && random.nextInt(members[group].size) == 0) {
+                score
+            } else {
+                1.0
+            }
         }
 
+        override fun toString(): String = "VmInterferenceDomain"
+
         /**
-         * Leave all the groups.
+         * Queue of participants that will be removed or added to the active groups.
          */
-        fun leave() {
+        private val _participants = ArrayDeque<InterferenceKeyImpl>()
+
+        /**
+         * (Re-)Compute the active groups.
+         */
+        private fun computeActiveGroups(id: Int) {
+            val activeKeys = activeKeys
+            val groups = membership[id]
+
+            if (activeKeys.isEmpty()) {
+                return
+            }
+
+            val members = members
+            val participants = _participants
+
             for (group in groups) {
-                group.leave(this)
+                val groupMembers = members[group]
+
+                var i = 0
+                var j = 0
+                var intersection = 0
+
+                // Compute the intersection of the group members and the current active members
+                while (i < groupMembers.size && j < activeKeys.size) {
+                    val l = groupMembers[i]
+                    val rightEntry = activeKeys[j]
+                    val r = rightEntry.id
+
+                    if (l < r) {
+                        i++
+                    } else if (l > r) {
+                        j++
+                    } else {
+                        participants.add(rightEntry)
+                        intersection++
+
+                        i++
+                        j++
+                    }
+                }
+
+                while (true) {
+                    val participant = participants.poll() ?: break
+                    val participantGroups = participant.groups
+                    if (intersection <= 1) {
+                        participantGroups.remove(group)
+                    } else {
+                        val pos = participantGroups.binarySearch(group)
+                        if (pos < 0) {
+                            participantGroups.add(-pos - 1, group)
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
             }
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * A group context is used to track the active keys per interference group.
+     * An interference key.
+     *
+     * @param id The identifier of the member.
      */
-    private inner class GroupContext(val group: VmInterferenceGroup) {
+    private class InterferenceKeyImpl(@JvmField val id: Int) : InterferenceKey, Comparable<InterferenceKeyImpl> {
         /**
-         * The active keys that are part of this group.
+         * The active groups to which the key belongs.
          */
-        private val keys = mutableSetOf<InterferenceKeyImpl>()
+        @JvmField val groups: MutableList<Int> = ArrayList()
 
         /**
-         * A flag to indicate that the group is active.
+         * The number of users of the interference key.
          */
-        val isActive
-            get() = keys.size > 1
+        private var refCount: Int = 0
 
         /**
-         * Determine whether the specified [id] is part of this group.
+         * Join the domain.
          */
-        operator fun contains(id: String): Boolean = id in group.members
+        fun acquire(): Boolean = refCount++ <= 0
 
         /**
-         * Join this group with the specified [key].
+         * Leave the domain.
          */
-        fun join(key: InterferenceKeyImpl) {
-            keys += key
-        }
+        fun release(): Boolean = --refCount <= 0
 
-        /**
-         * Leave this group with the specified [key].
-         */
-        fun leave(key: InterferenceKeyImpl) {
-            keys -= key
-        }
+        override fun compareTo(other: InterferenceKeyImpl): Int = id.compareTo(other.id)
     }
 }
diff --git a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimFairShareHypervisorTest.kt b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimFairShareHypervisorTest.kt
index 6f32cf46..b7f5bf8e 100644
--- a/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimFairShareHypervisorTest.kt
+++ b/opendc-simulator/opendc-simulator-compute/src/test/kotlin/org/opendc/simulator/compute/kernel/SimFairShareHypervisorTest.kt
@@ -30,7 +30,6 @@ import org.junit.jupiter.api.assertAll
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.assertDoesNotThrow
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.SimBareMetalMachine
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.cpufreq.PerformanceScalingGovernor
-import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceGroup
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.MachineModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.MemoryUnit
@@ -187,12 +186,11 @@ internal class SimFairShareHypervisorTest {
             memory = List(4) { MemoryUnit("Crucial", "MTA18ASF4G72AZ-3G2B1", 3200.0, 32_000) }
         )
 
-        val groups = listOf(
-            VmInterferenceGroup(targetLoad = 0.0, score = 0.9, members = setOf("a", "b")),
-            VmInterferenceGroup(targetLoad = 0.0, score = 0.6, members = setOf("a", "c")),
-            VmInterferenceGroup(targetLoad = 0.1, score = 0.8, members = setOf("a", "n"))
-        )
-        val interferenceModel = VmInterferenceModel(groups)
+        val interferenceModel = VmInterferenceModel.builder()
+            .addGroup(targetLoad = 0.0, score = 0.9, members = setOf("a", "b"))
+            .addGroup(targetLoad = 0.0, score = 0.6, members = setOf("a", "c"))
+            .addGroup(targetLoad = 0.1, score = 0.8, members = setOf("a", "n"))
+            .build()
 
         val platform = FlowEngine(coroutineContext, clock)
         val machine = SimBareMetalMachine(
diff --git a/opendc-web/opendc-web-runner/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/web/runner/Main.kt b/opendc-web/opendc-web-runner/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/web/runner/Main.kt
index 59308e11..a1bc869e 100644
--- a/opendc-web/opendc-web-runner/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/web/runner/Main.kt
+++ b/opendc-web/opendc-web-runner/src/main/kotlin/org/opendc/web/runner/Main.kt
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ import org.opendc.compute.workload.*
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.HostSpec
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.Topology
 import org.opendc.compute.workload.topology.apply
-import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.PerformanceInterferenceReader
+import org.opendc.compute.workload.util.VmInterferenceModelReader
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.kernel.interference.VmInterferenceModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.MachineModel
 import org.opendc.simulator.compute.model.MemoryUnit
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ class RunnerCli : CliktCommand(name = "runner") {
         logger.info { "Constructing performance interference model" }
 
         val workloadLoader = ComputeWorkloadLoader(tracePath)
-        val interferenceGroups = let {
+        val interferenceModel = let {
             val path = tracePath.resolve(scenario.trace.traceId).resolve("performance-interference-model.json")
             val operational = scenario.operationalPhenomena
             val enabled = operational.performanceInterferenceEnabled
@@ -140,15 +140,14 @@ class RunnerCli : CliktCommand(name = "runner") {
                 return@let null
             }
 
-            PerformanceInterferenceReader().read(path.inputStream())
+            VmInterferenceModelReader().read(path.inputStream())
         }
 
         val targets = portfolio.targets
         val results = (0 until targets.repeatsPerScenario).map { repeat ->
             logger.info { "Starting repeat $repeat" }
             withTimeout(runTimeout * 1000) {
-                val interferenceModel = interferenceGroups?.let { VmInterferenceModel(it, Random(repeat.toLong())) }
-                runRepeat(scenario, repeat, topology, workloadLoader, interferenceModel)
+                runRepeat(scenario, repeat, topology, workloadLoader, interferenceModel?.withSeed(repeat.toLong()))
             }
         }